Who Became a Citizen? Voting and Rights Compared

Every revolution redefined who counted as a full member of the political community. After 1689, England's electorate remained small, restricted by property. Most early American states required voters to own property or pay taxes, though these requirements were lowered over the following decades for white men, while women, most free Black men and Native Americans were largely excluded.

France's 1791 constitution distinguished 'active' citizens, who paid a minimum tax, from 'passive' ones, but the Convention was elected in 1792 by near-universal male suffrage. Haiti's 1805 constitution defined all Haitians as citizens regardless of color. Spanish American constitutions often set literacy or property requirements. Russia's 1918 constitution gave workers greater voting weight than peasants and disenfranchised 'exploiters' such as former nobles and clergy.

Comparing these rules shows that revolutionary ideals of equality were always translated into specific, contested boundaries.