Who Was Socrates? The Problem of Sources

Socrates wrote nothing, so everything we know comes from others, and they do not agree. This is called the Socratic problem. Aristophanes' comedy The Clouds (423 BCE) mocks him as a Sophist who studies the sky and teaches students to make weak arguments defeat strong ones. Xenophon, a soldier and writer who knew him, presents a practical, pious man giving sensible advice. Plato, his most devoted student, shows a brilliant questioner, but in later dialogues 'Socrates' often voices Plato's own theories.

Aristotle, born after Socrates died, offers brief and fairly careful comments. Historians compare these sources, consider each author's purpose and look for points of agreement, such as Socrates' habit of questioning, his poverty, his courage in battle and his trial. Many scholars treat Plato's earlier dialogues as closest to the historical Socrates, but this remains debated, which makes Socrates a classic exercise in source criticism.