The Vedas and Upanishads: Hindu Sacred Texts

Hindu scriptures fall into two broad categories. Shruti ('what is heard') includes the four Vedas, believed by many Hindus to be eternal truths received by ancient seers, while smriti ('what is remembered') includes epics, law codes and Puranas composed by human authors. Each Veda contains hymns, ritual instructions and, at the end, philosophical texts called the Upanishads. The Upanishads shifted attention from outward sacrifice to inner knowledge, asking what the self is and how it relates to ultimate reality.

Their famous teaching that the inner self (atman) is ultimately one with Brahman shaped later Hindu philosophy, especially the Vedanta schools. Because shruti was in Sanskrit and taught mainly to upper-caste men for centuries, access to it was restricted, which later reform movements challenged. The texts show how a ritual tradition developed a powerful philosophical side without abandoning its older practices.