Waves of Independence, 1945–1990

Decolonization came in recognizable waves rather than evenly. The first wave, from 1945 to about 1949, transformed South and Southeast Asia and the Middle East: the Philippines, India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon, Jordan, Israel and Indonesia all became independent. A second, larger wave swept Africa from the late 1950s, beginning with Sudan, Morocco, Tunisia and Ghana and peaking in 1960. Through the 1960s and 1970s many smaller territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific followed.

A third surge came in 1974–75, when Portugal's revolution led to the independence of Angola, Mozambique and other colonies. The last major cases were territories where white-minority governments resisted, including Zimbabwe in 1980 and Namibia in 1990. Comparing waves shows that timing depended on the colonial power's strength, the presence of settlers, and the international climate, not just the strength of local nationalism.