Negotiation or Armed Struggle?

Why did some colonies win independence through elections and conferences while others endured long wars? Comparison points to several factors. The most important was settlers: where large European populations owned land and had political influence, as in Algeria, Kenya, Rhodesia, Angola and Mozambique, transfers were bitterly resisted. A second factor was strategic or economic value, which made France reluctant to leave Indochina and Algeria.

The nature of the colonial power mattered too: Britain's postwar governments were often willing to negotiate, while Portugal's dictatorship refused to discuss independence at all. Finally, the presence of communist-led movements could harden a colonial government's resolve and draw in outside powers. Ghana, by contrast, had few settlers, a strong mass party and a pragmatic British government, and it became independent without a war. Historians warn, however, that even negotiated transfers often followed riots, strikes and repression.