Structure or Agency? Weighing Explanations

Structural theories, like Skocpol's, emphasize state breakdown, elite division and popular revolt. Jack Goldstone's Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World (1991) added population pressure, arguing that population growth strained state finances and elite opportunities.

These theories explain well why France in 1789, Spain's empire in 1808 and Russia in 1917 collapsed. But agency, the choices of individuals and groups, explains much of what followed: Washington's decision to resign, Toussaint's alliances, Bolívar's strategy and Lenin's push for an October seizure of power. Ideas mattered too, shaping goals and institutions.

Most historians now combine approaches: structures create opportunities and constraints, while people's choices and beliefs determine how those opportunities are used. A strong comparative argument specifies which factors explain which outcomes, rather than claiming a single cause explains everything.