The Consulate: Order, Authority and Plebiscites

The Constitution of Year VIII, introduced in December 1799, gave real power to Bonaparte as First Consul, while two other consuls had only advisory roles. Assemblies existed but had little power. The constitution was approved by plebiscite: the official result claimed about three million votes in favour, but historians have shown that Lucien Bonaparte, as interior minister, inflated the figures, and the real number of yes votes may have been closer to half that.

Bonaparte rapidly centralised administration, appointing prefects to run each department from 1800 and founding the Bank of France. His victory over Austria at Marengo in June 1800 secured his position, and peace with Britain at Amiens in 1802 brought a brief pause in war. Another plebiscite in 1802 made him Consul for Life. Supporters saw stability after a decade of upheaval; critics saw liberty sacrificed for order.