Toussaint Louverture

Toussaint Louverture was born enslaved around 1743 and had gained his freedom by the 1770s. After joining the 1791 revolt, he built a disciplined army and, after switching to the French side in 1794, drove out British and Spanish forces. By 1798 the British had withdrawn, and he defeated his rival André Rigaud in a bitter civil war in the south in 1799–1800. In 1801 he took control of Spanish Santo Domingo and issued a constitution naming himself governor for life.

While he banned slavery, he forced formerly enslaved people to keep working on plantations to restore the economy, a policy that caused resentment. He remained formally loyal to France but acted with great independence. Napoleon saw him as a threat. Admirers celebrate Toussaint as a brilliant liberator, while historians also note the authoritarian side of his rule and the dilemmas he faced.