Power-Sharing in Divided Societies

In societies deeply divided by religion, language or ethnicity, simple majority rule can mean permanent exclusion for minority communities. Consociational democracy, a term popularized by Arend Lijphart in 1969, offers an alternative: grand coalitions that include all major groups, proportional allocation of offices, community autonomy, and mutual vetoes on vital issues.

Examples include Lebanon's 1943 National Pact, which reserved the presidency for a Maronite Christian, the premiership for a Sunni Muslim and the speakership for a Shia Muslim; Belgium's arrangements between Dutch- and French-speakers; Bosnia and Herzegovina's three-member presidency after the 1995 Dayton Agreement; and Northern Ireland's 1998 Good Friday Agreement. Supporters argue power-sharing ends violence and builds trust.

Critics argue it freezes identities, rewards sectarian parties, causes deadlock and can exclude people who do not belong to recognized groups.