Coalition and Minority Governments

Where no party wins a majority, governments are often coalitions. Political scientists have proposed theories to predict which coalitions form. William Riker's 'minimum winning coalition' idea suggests parties prefer coalitions just large enough to govern, so they share offices with as few partners as possible. Other theories emphasize ideological closeness, predicting coalitions among parties with similar policies. Coalition partners negotiate detailed agreements, sometimes hundreds of pages long, covering policies and ministries.

Germany has been governed by coalitions for almost all of its post-1949 history. Minority governments, which rely on support from parties outside the cabinet, are common in Scandinavia; Denmark has frequently been governed this way. Supporters argue coalitions encourage compromise and represent more voters. Critics argue they blur accountability, since voters cannot easily tell who is responsible, and may give small parties disproportionate influence.