Heads of State and Heads of Government

Governments have two top roles that may or may not be combined. The head of state represents the nation, performs ceremonial duties and may hold reserve powers; the head of government leads the executive and directs policy. In presidential systems such as the United States, one person does both. In parliamentary systems they are separate: a monarch or a ceremonial president is head of state, while a prime minister governs.

Ceremonial presidents may be indirectly elected, as in Germany and India, or directly elected but with limited powers, as in Ireland. Walter Bagehot distinguished the 'dignified' parts of a constitution, which win public loyalty, from the 'efficient' parts, which govern. A separate head of state can provide a symbol of unity above party politics and act as a referee in crises, for example when no party can form a government.