A Bill of Rights for a New Republic

The US Constitution of 1787 created a stronger national government but contained few explicit protections for individuals. Anti-Federalists warned that without a bill of rights, the new government could trample liberties; Federalists such as Alexander Hamilton replied that listing rights was unnecessary and might imply that unlisted rights were unprotected. To secure ratification, supporters promised amendments, and James Madison guided twelve proposals through the First Congress in 1789.

Ten were ratified in 1791 and became known as the Bill of Rights, protecting freedoms of religion, speech, press and assembly, the rights of the accused, and reserving powers to states and the people. Its significance for the global history of rights lay in making rights enforceable law that courts could apply, not just statements of principle. Yet at first it bound only the federal government and offered nothing to enslaved people, limits that later amendments and movements would challenge.