Hawaii: From Kingdom to American Territory

The Kingdom of Hawaii was an internationally recognized independent state in the 19th century, but American sugar planters gained growing influence. A Reciprocity Treaty in 1875 let Hawaiian sugar enter the United States duty-free, and in 1887 a group of mostly American businessmen forced King Kalākaua to accept a constitution, known as the Bayonet Constitution, that sharply limited royal power and restricted voting by many Native Hawaiians and Asian residents.

When Queen Liliʻuokalani tried to issue a new constitution restoring royal authority, a committee of planters and businessmen, supported by US Marines landed from a warship, overthrew her in January 1893. President Grover Cleveland called the overthrow wrongful and opposed annexation, but the planters set up a republic. In 1898, during the war with Spain, Congress annexed Hawaii by joint resolution. Many Native Hawaiians signed petitions opposing annexation. In 1993 Congress formally apologized for the role of US agents in the overthrow.